Much of the research on language classrooms reveals that many learners　are placed in a responsive and seemingly passive role {Chaudron，工988;van Lier， 1988， Breen， 1998）. In such circumstances， learners are positioned like children who may seek to conform to a teacher's expectations and may even underachieve in order to do this. This passive conformity can be misinterpreted by the teacher as a lack of sufficient background knowledge， an unformed learning agenda or a lack of the capacity to participate in decision-making. However， all learners bring prior knowledge and capability to learning and further understanding is sought on the basis of what is already known and not merely given. Negotiation provides a context in which opportunities exist for learners to articufate and， thereby， refine their prior under-standings， purposes and intentions as reference points for new learning. All learning also requires intention and decision and， as the humanist psychologists discovered， learners work harder if they can explore and articulate their own ideas，ask their own questions and seek their own answers. Psychologists such as Kelly， Maslow and Vygotsky （see pre-vious section） all identified deeper learning as a gradual quest. Learners need time and space to think things through and to talk， read， write and act themselves into new understandings. They need to confront willingly the risk of the problematic and to identify uncertainties. They also need a sense of continuity and progress and this requires ongoing reflection at appropriate moments. None of these requirements are likely to be attained by a learner without support and feedback from others and negotiating new understandings， uncertainties and evaluative reflections with a group of other people who are sharing the learning experience can clearly provide such support.

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Much of the research on language classrooms reveals that many learners　are placed in a responsive and seemingly passive role {Chaudron，工988;van Lier， 1988， Breen， 1998）. In such circumstances， learners are positioned like children who may seek to conform to a teacher's expectations and may even underachieve in order to do this. This passive conformity can be misinterpreted by the teacher as a lack of sufficient background knowledge， an unformed learning agenda or a lack of the capacity ...

Contributors
Acknowledgements
Introduction and overview
1 The sigruficance ofnegotiation
Part 1 Accounts of practice in primary and secondary schools Overview
2 Negotiated evaluation in a primary ESL context
3 Negotiating assessment with secondary-schoolpupils
4 Introducing negotiation processes: an experiment with creative project work
5 We do what we like': negotiated classroom work with Hungarian children
6 Is a negotiated syllabus feasible within a national curriculum?
7 Refining negotiated classroom work in a Spanish secondary school
Part 2 Accounts of praaice in tertiary institutions Overview
8 Negotiation in tertiary education: clashes with the dominant educational culture
9 Syllabus negotiation in a school of nursing
10 Negotiating the syllabus:learning needs analysis through pictures
11 Reality therapy: using negotiated work in a techriical-writing class
12 Negotiation of outcome: evaluation and revision decisions in the writing curriculum
13 Learners, practitioners, teachers: diamond spotting and negotiating role boundaries
Part 3 Accounts ofpractice in teacher education Overview
14 A process syllabus in a methodology course: experiences,beliefs, challenges
15 Discourse, process and reflection in teacher education
16 Negotiation, process, content and partiapants' experience in a process syllabus for ELT professionals
17 Negotiation as a participatory dialogue Conclusions
18 The practicalities ofnegotiation
References
Index

Contributors
Acknowledgements
Introduction and overview
1 The sigruficance ofnegotiation
Part 1 Accounts of practice in primary and secondary schools Overview
2 Negotiated evaluation in a primary ESL context
3 Negotiating assessment with secondary-schoolpupils
4 Introducing negotiation processes: an experiment with creative project work
5 We do what we like': negotiated classroom work with Hungarian children
6 Is a negotiated syllabus feasible within a national curriculum?
7 Refining ...